The Concept of Childhood in Western Countries

The history of childhood has beena heated topic in social history since the highly influentialbook ‘Centuries of Childhood’, written by French historian Philippe Aries, emerged in 1960. He claimed that ‘childhood’ is a concept created by modern society.

1. a heated topic 热门话题
2. highly influential 极具影响力的
3. modern society 现代社会

Whether childhood is itself a recent invention has beenone of the most intensely debated issues in the history of childhood. Historian Philippe Aries asserted that children were regarded as miniature adults, with all the intellect and personality that this implies, in Western Europe during the Middle Ages (up to about the end of the 15th century).

Afterscrutinisingmedieval pictures and diaries, he concluded that there was no distinction between children andadults for they shared similar leisure activities and work; However, this does not mean children were neglected, forsakenordespised, he argued. The idea of childhoodcorresponds toawareness about the peculiar nature of childhood, which distinguishes the childfromadult, even the young adult. Therefore, the concept of childhood is not to be confused withaffection for children.

1. one of the most intensely debated issues in the history of childhood = a heated topicin social history
2. a concept created by modern society = a recent invention
3. assert = claim
4. there was no distinction between children andadults for they shared similar leisure activities and work == which distinguishes the childfromadult, even the young adult
5. correspond to ... 相当于...
6. be regarded as ... 被认为是... === be treated as ...
7. leisure activities 休闲活动
8. However, this does not mean ... 但是，这并不意味着...
9. be confused with ...= confuse ... with ...
10. scrutinise v. 仔细查看
11. forsake v. 抛弃，遗弃
12. despise v. 蔑视；看不起

Traditionally, children played a functional role incontributing to the family income in the history. Under this circumstance,children were considered to be useful. Back in the Middle Ages, children of 5 or 6 years old did necessary chores for their parents.During the 16th century, children of 9 or 10 years old were often encouraged or even forced to leave their family to work as servants for wealthier families or apprentices for a trade.

1. play a (+adj.) role in doing sth 在做某事中发挥(...的)作用
2. contribute to sth = make a contribution to sth 对...做出贡献
3. under this circumstance, 在这种情况下，
4. do necessary chores for one's parents 为父母分担必要的家务
5. encourage/force sb to do sth 鼓励/强迫某人做某事
6. family income 家庭收入
7. apprentices n. 学徒 == apprenticeship 学徒制

In the 18th and 19th centuries, industrialisation created a new demand for child labour; thus many children were forced to work for a long time in mines, workshopsand factories. The issue of whether long hours of labouring wouldinterfere with children's growing bodies began to perplexsocial reformers. Some of them started to realise the potential of systematic studies to monitor how far these early deprivations might be influencing children's development.

1. were forced to work for a long time = long hours of labouring
2. perplexsocial reformers = confuse
3. whether long hours of labouring wouldinterfere withchildren's growing bodies == how far these early deprivations might be influencingchildren's development
4. create a new demand for... 对...产生了新的需求
5. realise the potential of ... 意识到...的潜能
6. child labour 童工
7. social reformers 社会改革者
8. systematic studies 系统研究

The concerns of reformers graduallyhad some impact upon the working condition of children. For example, in Britain, the Factory Act of 1833signified the emergence of legal protection of children from exploitation and was also associated withthe rise of schools for factory children. Due partly to factory reform, the worst forms of child exploitation were eliminated gradually. The influence oftrade unions and economic changes also contributed to the evolution by leaving some forms of child labour redundantduring the 19th century. Initiating children into work as ‘useful’ children was no longer a priority, and childhood was deemed to be a time for play and education for all children instead of a privileged minority.

Childhood was increasingly understood as a more extended phase of dependency, development and learning with the delay of the age for starting full-time work- Even so, work continued toplay a significant,if less essential, role in children's lives in the later 19th and 20th centuries. Finally, the 'useful child' has become a controversial concept during the first decade of the 21st century, especially in the context of global concern about large numbers of children engaged in child labour.

1. have an/some impact on/upon sth 对...有作用
2. working condition 工作环境
3. protect sb from sth 保护某人不受...的伤害
4. signify the emergence of ... 标志着...的出现
5. be associated with ... 与...有关
6. Due partly to ... 部分由于...
7. child exploitation 儿童剥削
8. redundant 多余的;被裁减的
9. trade unions 工会
10. initiate sb into sth (通过仪式)接纳，使加入
11. in the context of ...在...的背景下

The half-time schools established upon the Factory Act of 1833 allowed children to work and attend school. However, a significant proportion of children never attended school in the 1840s, and even if they did, they dropped out by the age of10 or 11. By the end of the 19th century in Britain, the situation changed dramatically, and schoolsbecame the core tothe concept of a ‘normal’ childhood.

1. allow sb to do sth 允许某人做某事
2. drop out (of school) 退学
3. become the core to sth 变成...的核心

It is no longer a privilege for children to attend school and all children are expected to spend a significant part of their day in a classroom. Once in school, children's lives couldbe separated fromdomestic life and the adult world of work.In this way, school turns into an institution dedicated to shaping the minds, behaviour and morals of the young.Besides, education dominated the management of children's working hours through the hours spent in the classroom, homework (the growth of ‘after school' activities), and the importance attached to parental involvement.

1. It is no longer a privilege forchildren toattend school and all children are expected to spend a significant part of their day in a classroom. = Initiating children into work as ‘useful’ children was no longer a priority,and childhood was deemed to be a time for play and education for all children instead of a privileged minority.
2. attend school 上学
3. domestic life 家庭生活
4. dedicate to doing sth 致力于做某事
5. after school activities 课后活动
6. the importance attached to ... 对...的重视 = attach importance to ...重视...
7. parental involvement 父母的参与

Industrialisation, urbanisation and mass schooling pose new challenges for those who are responsible for protecting children's welfare, as well as promoting their learning. An increasing number of children are being treated as a group with unique needs, and are organised into groups in the light oftheir age. For instance, teachersneed to know some information about what to expect of children in their classrooms, what kinds of instructionare appropriate fordifferent age groups, and what is the best way to assess children's progress. Also, they want tools enabling them to sort and select children according to their abilities and potential.

1. pose new challenges for sb = pose new challenges to sb 对/给...提出了新的挑战
2. be responsible for doing sth 负责做某事
3. protect children's welfare 保护儿童权益
4. are organised into groups in the light oftheir age 根据 ... = sort and select children according to their abilities and potential